An Overview of Statelessness

What does it mean to be stateless?

A person is stateless if they do not have a nationality of any country, meaning they are not recognised as belonging to any country. The international legal definition of a stateless person is ‘a person who is not considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law’.

What is nationality?

‘Nationality’ is the term used to describe an individual’s link to a state in the broader context of international law. ‘Citizenship’ is the term that tends to be used in the context of a domestic legal system. In practice, the terms are often used interchangeably.

Nationality is the legal relationship or bond between the citizen/national and the state, creating reciprocal rights and duties for both. Under international human rights law, everyone is entitled to most human rights by virtue of being human, rather than on the basis of nationality. However, in practice, many states restrict the full enjoyment of social, economic and political rights to their nationals.

People usually acquire nationality at birth, either through descent (jus sanguinis – meaning law of the blood) or by virtue of being born in a particular country (jus soli –meaning law of the soil). This is usually an automatic process, but sometimes a person must apply to obtain nationality. Other methods of acquiring nationality include marriage, adoption, domicile (a legal term meaning the place considered in law to be that person’s permanent home) or by making investments in a country. Each country has its own laws and policies for determining who is eligible for acquiring that country’s nationality and the process for this.

What are the impacts of statelessness?

The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that ‘everyone has the right to a nationality’. Indeed, many of us take our nationality for granted. But for stateless persons, the lack of nationality often prevents them from accessing even the most basic rights.

Stateless persons may be unable to attend school, see a doctor, be employed or get married. Statelessness can have devastating consequences for individuals. It is a barrier to political participation and social inclusion. Stateless persons are vulnerable to exploitation and trafficking, and in some cases are at risk of long periods in detention. Furthermore, stateless people can be victims of forced displacement when they are expelled from their home country or forced to flee from persecution and discrimination.

How many people are stateless?

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has estimated that as of end-2024, there are 4.4 million stateless persons globally, including people with undetermined nationality.¹ However, the exact number of stateless persons is unknown. Obtaining global data on statelessness is highly challenging because very often stateless persons are not issued any documentation by the state and are excluded from national administrative registries and databases.

Where in the world are stateless persons?

Most stateless persons live for generations in the country in which they were born. Every region in the world has stateless persons.

The majority reside in the Asia-Pacific region, for example:

The Rohingya from Myanmar’s Rakhine State constitute one of the world’s largest known stateless populations, totalling nearly 1.8 million. Of the nearly 600,000 Rohingya reported in Myanmar, 41% are internally displaced.² Over 900,000 Rohingya have been forced over the border to Bangladesh to escape violence, whilst smaller numbers of Rohingya fled to other neighbouring countries including Thailand and Malaysia.
By the end of 2024, UNHCR reported a total of 1,005,520 stateless people in Bangladesh alone.³
Thailand reported that there were 612,524 stateless people in 2024, although the actual figure is likely to be significantly higher. Stateless people in Thailand include members of ethnic hill tribes such as the Yao, Hmong and Karen who live near the border with Myanmar and Laos.
Malaysia reported 120,587 stateless people in 2024. Stateless populations include members of the Bajau Laut group in Sabah and people of Tamil Indian descent in West Malaysia.
There are 8,313 stateless people in Australia as of 2024.

Outside of the Asia Pacific, 930,978 stateless people are reported in Côte d'Ivoire and 160,000 in the Syrian Arab Republic.⁴

How does someone become stateless?

There are multiple causes of statelessness globally; some people are born stateless, while others become stateless during the course of their lifetime. In countries where nationality is based on descent, statelessness may be transmitted from one generation to the next.

The main causes of statelessness are:

Discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, language and/or gender
Emergence of new states and changes in national borders
Conflict or gaps in nationality laws
Loss and deprivation of nationality

Furthermore, migration and displacement can also cause statelessness by compounding existing discriminations in nationality laws and citizenship practices. Climate change is also likely to further increase statelessness.⁵

For a detailed overview of the causes of statelessness, please see the Peter McMullin Centre on Statelessness factsheet 'How Does Someone Become Stateless?' linked below.

How is the international community addressing statelessness?

UNHCR has been given a formal mandate by the UN General Assembly to identify stateless people, prevent and reduce statelessness, and protect the rights of stateless persons. On 4 November 2014, UNHCR launched the #IBelong Campaign to End Statelessness by 2024. During the ten years of the campaign, more than 600,000 stateless people acquired citizenship, 14 States acceded to the 1954 Convention and 18 States to the 1961 Convention.

Building on this momentum, UNHCR launched the Global Alliance to End Statelessness in October 2024 to continue the momentum of the #IBelong Campaign and to accelerate solutions to statelessness. As of May 2025, the Alliance encompasses 141 States as well as a range of intergovernmental organisations, UN agencies and civil society organisations.⁶

Are there different types of statelessness?

Over time, legal experts have come to recognise two categories of statelessness: de jure statelessness and de facto statelessness. A person is de jure stateless when they meet the international legal definition of statelessness: they do not have a nationality under the laws of any country.

There is no formal definition in international law of de facto statelessness. A person is generally considered to be de facto stateless when:

they have a nationality;
reside outside the territory of their country of nationality; and
are unable or unwilling (for valid reasons) to have recourse to the protection of that country.

People in this situation are de facto stateless because their nationality is functionally ineffective. Refugees who have a nationality are de facto stateless because they are without the protection of their country of nationality, however there are many de facto stateless people who are not refugees.

Although international law treats their statuses as distinct, people who are de jure stateless and people who are de facto stateless can share lived experiences because they are unable to enjoy the rights that come with having a nationality. However, understanding the distinction between de jure statelessness and de facto statelessness is important because certain international laws only apply to de jure stateless people.

For more information on the main international laws on statelessness, see the Peter McMullin Centre on Statelessness’ factsheets on the United Nations Statelessness Conventions - The 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons and the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness linked below.

Can statelessness be ‘solved?’

Yes. Governments determine who is a national of their state. Therefore, effectively ending statelessness is a matter of reforming domestic laws and policies and implementing them in practice. Thus, it is entirely possible to resolve existing situations of statelessness and prevent children from growing up stateless in the future. For instance, Kyrgyz Republic and Turkmenistan are two countries to have resolved all known cases of statelessness in their territory.⁷

Download this factsheet

An Overview of Statelessness

What does it mean to be stateless?

What is nationality?

What are the impacts of statelessness?

How many people are stateless?

Where in the world are stateless persons?

How does someone become stateless?

How is the international community addressing statelessness?

Are there different types of statelessness?

Can statelessness be ‘solved?’

More reading

How does someone become stateless?

United Nations Statelessness Conventions: An Introduction

1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons

1961 Convention on the reduction of Statelessness

Suggested further reading and listening: